Field trip report Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Field trip report - Research Paper Example Tourists and tourism companies have began to seek more sustainable tourism activities, with one of the key areas being carbon neutrality. Carbon neutrality was introduced for the first time in the climate change context. The industry contributes approximately 6% of emissions of CO2 globally, with 94% being from travel by air. Carbon neutrality’s implication is carbon emission balancing via offsetting of the carbon footprint of a destination. This mainly involves investing in renewable sources of energy and also investing in forestry. It is achieved when a tourist, company, or destination manages to neutralize the emission of carbon from travel and high carbon emitting facilities like electricity generators. This paper aims to report on the carbon neutral activities that support the move towards sustainable development in tourism via the use of indicators specific to carbon neutrality. Introduction In the sustainable tourism context, indicators are sets of information that are chosen in order to make regular measurements of changes in issues and assets which are vital for development of tourism, as well as a destination’s management (Ball, 2009 p101). ... The publication is descriptive of more than forty issues concerning sustainability, which range from natural resource management to control of development, tourist and host community satisfaction, cultural heritage preservation, climate change, economic leakages, seasonality, among others (Ball, 2009 p109). Each issue is listed with management techniques and indicators suggested along with examples and practical sources of information. The publication is also inclusive of how to develop indicators that are destination specific. The tourism industry responded to the issue of climate change in a two fold manner (Association, 2008 p34). These are mitigation and adaptation. In the past, the industry had taken steps to deal with climate change based on service provider activities. The transport operators, both rail and air, tried to cut down CO2 emissions, while facilities for accommodation made an attempt to regulate and control emission. In recent times, however, there has been a push f or the realization of a future with low-carbon. The tourist destinations aim to achieve tourism that is sustainable. This is referred to as destinations that are carbon neutral. In July 2009, Caribbean countries revealed their plan to become the world’s first carbon-neutral destination, citing tourist resource vulnerability assessment, as well as evaluation of tourism’s impact on the environment. This marketing plan does not aim at increasing tourist numbers, but rather their consumption, leading to increased travel quality. UNWTO has set an average tourist consumption of approximately 50%. Carbon neutrality can be defined as the process through which emissions are calculated via a transparent process, reduced and residual emissions offset so

The Quality in Healthcare Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 52

The Quality in Healthcare - Essay Example The next step that was taken in order to solve the issue was close monitoring of the emergency department. This was done with the intention of improving the quality of care given to the patients. Another thing was to be taken care of was the waiting time of the patients and satisfaction of the patients in relation to the service delivered to them. A benchmark was set up where the timeliness of the treatments and the proportion of return of the patients was to be reported within 72 hours. Additional staffs were hired for the emergency department so that the patients coming in could be treated properly and taken care of. Triages were moved out to the waiting area in order to identify and move the serious patients faster. This would in return decrease the waiting time for the emergency patients. The registration process was streamlined with help of modern technology such as the installation of wireless computers. This process helped in giving the information of waiting time to the unregistered patients. The staffs were given proper training to take the accurate and timely decisions. The quality of service plays a major role in any healthcare organization. The patient's health and survival is the ultimate goal for all of them (Dixon-Woods, McNicol & Martin, 2012). The measures that were taken to improve the service were logical because the prime motive was to reduce the patient waiting time and to improve the quality of care. In this respect hiring extra staffs and use of advanced technology helped in the decrease of patient waiting time. In addition, the placement of triages in the waiting area ensured that the serious patients were identified and moved in for treatment faster. Quality tools help individuals comprehend and enhance forms. There are numerous distinctive tools, and the aptitude of quality experts lies in their capability to take an application from one field or industry.

Looking at the social comments Bennett Essay Example for Free

Looking at the social comments Bennett Essay For I could easily afford to keep my mother and wife too. This conveys that from Phillips point of view, women are the responsibility of men and this also reflects his upbringing as through the environment he has been brought up in, he has gained the arrogance of being able to believe that he is higher than women and that women to him, are something that must be brought in order to look after or keep them. Bennett stereotypes the arrogance of men in society through the assumptions that Phillip makes about his mother. This is shown as when in the text Phillip comes to know that dinner was set for three; he immediately thought that it was something to do with him, that his fianci e Agnes was arriving he did not consider the fact that the guest could be for his mother. By presenting Phillip like this, Bennett is suggesting that Phillip is portraying the arrogance of the male in society; However, Phillip can not be blamed for his attitude towards women in society as he was merely acting of the confines of the social rules within the society that he was brought up in at the time. This is shown as at the end of the story, Phillip realises that the arrogance he was brought up with was wrong as when Phillip realises that his mother is engaged, he states I had never thought of my mother as a woman with a future. By saying this, Phillip admits that his views were not necessarily correct as he never thought his mother had a future or a life of her own but after hearing the news of the engagement from his mother and Mr Nixon, he realises that he was wrong and admits this by simply stating we live and we learn. Through news of the engagement Bennett shares the views of Phillip towards the relationship between him and his mother, leaving the reader to assume that Phillips mother has an unfair status within society and that her views are different to those of her sons views. This is shown as Phillip wouldnt share his personal matters with his mother, he tells the reader this by stating .. you cant write even to your mother.. In cold blood: I think Agnes likes me by saying this, Phillip is implying that his mother and him do not have a close relationship as he cant tell his mother about his engagement, he also shows that his mothers opinion doesnt count or matter as he states she might be a little bit hurt just at first . Here, Bennett insinuates to the reader that Phillip has been brought up to be independent enough to perform personal matters without involving his mother as she isnt very important to him; although he believes that he means everything to his mother as he is the only man in her life. However, nearly to the end of the story, the reader comes to know that Phillips mother feels exactly the way towards Phillip as he does towards her, this is shown as Mr Nixon states .. she couldnt have well written, My dear Phillip, an old friend, Mr Nixon, is falling in love with me and I believe Im falling in love with him. .. . This proves that Phillips mother is also a product of her environment as she also implies that she believes her sons opinion does not count or matter and that he does not need to be involved in her personal matters. This is very ironic as at the start of the story Phillips environment lead him to believe that he couldnt write in a letter to his own mother that he is getting engaged then, in the end, Phillip learned that his mothers environment also lead her to believe that she couldnt write in a letter to her own son that she is getting engaged, this changed Phillips views as he realises the irony and the views that his society and environment brought him to believe he admits his mistake by simply stating we live and we learn. Bennett simply comments on society, inferring simple messages such as we live and we learn, he does not criticise society through his stories, unlike Charles dickens, who sends highly critical messages across about society through his famous stories such as a Christmas carol and Oliver! . Bennetts stories are inferred comments about social and historical issues and how they are or should change, he explores the upbringing and status of the characters in news of an engagement and implies the change in society after the main character realises the irony of the relationship between him and his mother.

Causes of Chronic Migraines

Causes of Chronic Migraines Headache is pain in any part of the head that can occur suddenly or gradually and produce a varying amount of pain; in fact, it is the most common form of pain in the United States (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2014). Headache is often divided into two categories, primary and secondary (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2014). A primary headache is one that is due to the headache itself, it is not caused by another problem (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2014). The three types of primary headache include tension headaches, cluster headaches, and migraine headaches (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2014). Secondary headaches, on the other hand, are headaches that are caused by something else (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2014). Examples of secondary headaches include headaches from an illness, headaches from a medication, sinus headaches, cervicogenic headaches (which are headaches related to an underlying neck condition, like degenerative disc disease), and headache due to a brain tumor or aneurysm (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2014). Migraine headaches are one of the most common forms of headache (Davanzo, Bua, Paloni, Facchina, 2014). Migraines are considered a neurological condition (Schwedt, 2014; Silberstein, 2014). They often manifest as recurrent attacks of throbbing, frequently unilateral headaches with associated features, including: nausea, vomiting, photophobia, and phonophobia (Pietrobon Moskowitz, 2012; Schwedt, 2014). Migraines can be further subdivided into episodic or chronic (Schwedt, 2014). Episodic migraine sufferers have less than 15 headache days a month, whereas chronic sufferers have at least 15 headache days a month for at least three months, and at least eight headaches that have symptoms consistent with a full-blown migraine attack (Ferrari, 2013; Schwedt, 2014). Chronic migraine is a common disorder; it impacts people during their most productive years of life, has tremendous costs to the individual and society, and is associated with a variety of comorbid disorders (Schwedt, 2014). Chronic migraine typically develop through a process called migraine transformation, which is a slow increase in the frequency of headaches, usually over a period of months to years (Schwedt, 2014). Chronic migraine is diagnosed based on the patient’s symptoms by excluding other causes of headache (Schwedt, 2014). A general physical and neurological exam should be performed on each patient and attention should be paid to the patient’s neck, shoulders, temporal artery pulses, and tempromandibular joint; if any abnormalities are found on the neurological exam, a secondary headache should be suspected and the patient should undergo further evaluation (Schwedt, 2014). Many risk factors are associated with a higher likelihood of transformation from episo dic to chronic migraine and include obesity, excessive caffeine intake, low socioeconomic status, and major life changes like marriage or divorce, to name a few (Schwedt, 2014). Common conditions comorbid with chronic migraine include other neurological disorders, gastrointestinal problems, and cerebrovascular disease (Pietrobon Moskowitz, 2012; Schwedt, 2014). Compared to people with episodic migraines, patients with chronic migraine are twice as likely to have certain psychiatric disorders, including anxiety, depression, and bipolar disorder (Schwedt, 2014). The pathophysiology of chronic migraine is complicated and not fully understood (Schwedt, 2014). It was once believed that migraines were simply a swelling of the blood vessels in the brain (Pietrobon Moskowitz, 2012). More recent experiments have shown that swelling of the meninges and/or extracranial arteries is neither necessary nor sufficient to cause migraine pain (Pietrobon Moskowitz, 2012). While such swelling is certainly often found during migraines, migraines are no longer assumed to be exclusively a disorder of blood vessels; rather, there are data to suggest that chronic migraine is associated with progressive brain changes, both in brain structure and brain function (Ferrari, 2013; Pietrobon Moskowitz, 2012). Atypical modulation of pain is suspected to play a role in the transformation from episodic to chronic migraine by reducing the inhibition of pain in the regions of the descending pain modulatory pathway in the brain (Schwedt, 2014). Neuroimaging studies of patie nts with chronic migraine have shown both atypical structures of pain processing and atypical pain processing in the brain (Schwedt, 2014). Regions of the brain that participate in sensory discrimination, affect, and the cognitive appraisal of pain are also atypical in migraine sufferers (Schwedt, 2014; Silberstein, 2014). Many studies have found correlations among the extent of these abnormalities and the frequency and severity of migraine headaches, suggesting that these abnormalities could be precursor to the transformation from episodic to chronic migraine (Schwedt, 2014), but more research is necessary to determine the exact role and mechanism of these abnormalities. The trigemininovasular system is currently considered one of the major players in the role of chornic migraine (Pietrobon Moskowitz, 2012; Schwedt, 2014). The trigeminal nerve is the fifth cranial nerve in the body and is the main sensory nerve in the head (Fix Brueckner, 2009). Some researchers believe that the musculature around the trigeminal nerve branches become irritated, which leads to the swelling and pain caused by migraine headaches (Kurlander, Punjabi, Liu, Sattar, Guyuon, 2013). Presently it is speculated that a sensitization of the trigeminal system that innervates cranial tissues, specifically the meninges (which often swell during migraine attacks) leads to a lower threshold for activation (Pietrobon Moskowitz, 2012; Schwedt, 2014). A lower threshold for activation means the system becomes activated more easily, which leads to more migraine attacks, and more migraine attacks therefore increase the likelihood of a chronic migraine diagnosis (Pietrobon Moskowitz, 20 12; Schwedt, 2014). Another line of research that is currently being investigated is cortical hyperexcitability (Schwedt, 2014). The human nervous system is composed of billions of synapses and neurons functioning as part of a large, highly specializes system (Fix Brueckner, 2009). All aspects of behavior are informed by the nervous system, and it can rudimentarily be broken down into excitatory and inhibitory components that facilitate the communication among different neurotransmitters in the brain to determine the level of inhibition of excitation of each response (Fix Brueckner, 2009). Excitation in the brain is mainly associated with the neurotransmitter glutamate (Fix Brueckner, 2009). Recent transcranial magnetic stimulation studies on patients with chronic migraine have shown cortical hyperexcitability, particularly in the occipital cortex of the brain. The occipital cortex is associated with vision, and this makes sense to researchers as visual auras are often associated with migraine attack s (Fix Brueckner, 2009; Schwedt, 2014). A neurotransmitter of interest, particularly with the beginning phase of a migraine attack, is dopamine (Charles, 2012). Some research has shown that dopamine receptor agonists administered to patients produce some of the same symptoms that are experienced by migraine sufferers at the beginning of an attack (Charles, 2012). Conversely, dopamine receptor antagonists administered to patients can reverse those symptoms and have even been suggested to have the ability to prevent the onset of additional migraine attacks (Charles, 2012). While the exact role of dopamine in chronic migraine is unknown, it is certainly an interesting line of future study. Treatments for chronic migraine range from trigger identification and avoidance to risk-factor modification, and include both pharmacological and nonpharmacological components (Schwedt, 2014). A discussion of each type of treatment and the variety of treatments within is beyond the scope of this review, however, some of the most common pharmacological treatments will be highlighted. Pharmacological treatment for migraines can be divided into two categories: abortive drugs, which stop a headache after onset, and prophylactic drugs, which are taken on a regular basis to prevent the onset of a migraine (Davanzo et al., 2014). Those who suffer from chronic migraine are often on a prophylactic regimen, due to the intensity and severity of the headaches (Davanzo et al., 2014). While many drugs are used for chronic migraine prophylaxis, it is important to note that many are prescribed off label; in fact, the only drug approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of chronic migraine is onabotulinumtoxinA (Schwedt, 2014). OnabotulinumtoxinA, more commonly known as Botox, has been popularized as a series of small injections in the face that reduce the appearance of crow’s feet and frown lines (Oliver, MacDonald, Rajwani, 2006). However, the injections are also used to treat chronic migraine (Schwedt, 2014). Botox is part of a class of medications called neurotoxins (Fix Brueckner, 2009). It has no direct effect on the central nervous system because it cannot penetrate the blood brain barrier, however, it can have some important indirect effects on the central nervous system (Fix Brueckner, 2009; Oliver, MacDonald, Rajwani, 2006). When used to treat chronic migraine, Botox is injected into different muscles in the face to block the nerve signals to those muscles (Fix Brueckner, 2009; Oliver, MacDonald, Rajwani, 2006). Specifically, Botox has been shown to inhibit sensitizations of central trigeminal nerves, which was previously discussed regarding the pathophysiology of chronic migraine (Ol iver, MacDonald, Rajwani, 2006). Triptans are another common class of drugs used for chronic migraine prophylaxis (Davanzo et al., 2014). Triptans are serotonin receptor agonists, meaning they bind to serotonin and increase the response of serotonin at the site of action (Davanzo et al., 2014; Fix Brueckner, 2009). Triptans have a vasoconstriction action on blood vessels, meaning they shrink the size of blood vessels, which is helpful in reducing the pain of migraines some of which can be attributed to swollen blood vessels in the brain (Davanzo et al., 2014). However, the desired effect of vasoconstriction is not limited to just the brain and also constricts other blood vessels, including those in the heart (Davanzo et al., 2014). As a result, patients with any coronary disease should use care when taking triptans (Davanzo et al., 2014). The most commonly prescribed triptan medication is Sumatriptan and is available in multiple forms including pills, injections, and intranasal spray (Davanzo et al., 2014). The inj ections and intranasal spray reach the brain more quickly and are therefore faster acting than the pill which must first get absorbed into the blood stream to take effect (Davanzo et al., 2014). Beta blockers, originally used for the treatment of hypertension and angina, are also often used for migraine prophylaxis (Davanzo et al., 2014). The beta part of beta blockers refers to receptors on blood vessels that are called beta receptors (Fix Brueckner, 2009). Therefore, beta blockers prevent the interaction of certain chemicals with this receptor (Fix Brueckner, 2009). The most commonly prescribed beta blocker for chronic migraine is Propranolol (Davanzo et al., 2014). Propranolol is likely successful in preventing migraine headaches by blocking beta adrenergic receptors, which inhibits swelling of arteries. Additionally, Propranolol may also exhibit its effect by preventing the platelets (the sticky elements of the blood) from sticking together and releasing substances that caused the blood vessels to constrict and dilate. A concern with pharmacological treatment of chronic migraine is the development of medication overuse headaches. These occur when a migraine sufferer uses migraine drugs too frequently, and develops a secondary headache as a result of the medication use (Schwedt, 2014). The treatment includes a drug withdrawal phase, during which time the patient would have to stop taking medication for his migraine or take a medication with different mechanism of action to allow the overused drug to leave his system (Schwedt, 2014). This response is paradoxical because sufferers of chronic migraine often rely on pharmacological treatments to alleviate their pain, but if they take too much they will actually end up exacerbating their pain. About half of chronic migraine sufferers are treated for medication overuse headaches at some point (Schwedt, 2014). A brief overview of the criteria for diagnosis, hypothesized pathophysiology, and pharmacology for the treatment of chronic migraine has been discussed. While there is still much to learn about the pathophysiology of chronic migraine, recent research has increased the understanding and opened up new areas of research to bring scientists closer to a more comprehensive understanding. While many data indicate that chronic migraine is a debilitating condition with great intensity and duration of headaches, and often lead to lost productivity and high costs on society (Schwedt, 2014), there are prophylactic and abortive drugs that can greatly ameliorate the problems caused by migraines. With attention to and modification of risk factors, often in addition to appropriate adherence to these medications, migraine sufferers can live normal, productive lives.

An Analysis of Jack Londons To Build a Fire :: London To Build a Fire Essays

An Analysis of Jack London's To Build a Fire In his article "To Build a Fire" a Physical Fiction and Metaphysical Critics Charles E. May comments and disagrees with a statement that "To Build a Fire" is "a masterpiece of a short fiction"(20). Literary critics claimed that London used many metaphors in this work such as "sun-fire-life" or "cold-darkness-depression-death"(20), but May argues that this story should be read and interpreted literally and does not contain deep, dual or metaphorical meaning. He says: "For Jack London, and consequently for the reader, the man in the story is simply a living body, the cold is simply a physical fact"(22). What is more article's author strongly disagrees with the critic, who compares the theme of the story to a theme of a classical tragedy. May sarcastically states that the only visible similarity in terms of theme would be the issue of protagonist's death(22). I think that "To Build a Fire" story relates to many issues hidden behind a superficial plot. The story takes place in a very severe winter; the man under appreciates the dangers of nature forces and struggles to return to camp. He is warned about possible dangers, but he is also too pride and too self-confident to take the advice into consideration. The protagonist is accompanied by a dog. The man tries to survive, but forces of nature are stronger and he dies. The interpretation of the story, however, reveals real "treasures": problem of loneliness, deadly fear, acceptance, understanding, issue of time, and a scary silence. The protagonist seems to be a very independent and strong person, he rather listens to himself first. He planned his way back home, and regardless to weather condition he realizes his plans and sets off. During this trip he starts to realize that it may be too cold, initially tries to set up a fire, but it is not enough to survive. He is scared, and has a feeling of a coming death. In some ways he is similar to a contemporary person, who never has enough time for anything. The protagonist rushes to get home, to realize his own plans, to go forward, then on a deserted land he suddenly finds time, too much time to think, and to feel. It was a very uncomfortable feeling to be aware of his own death; he is able to predict what will happen. At first, he tries to escape and safely find camp, but afterwards he learns it is impossible, and accepts his fate.

Hybrid electric vehicle Essay

What microenvironmental factors affected both the first generation and second generation models of the Toyota Prius? How well has Toyota dealt with these factors? When the Prius was introduced in the US, it was quite shocking that it became such a big hit. The US auto market had been dominated by SUV’s for quite some time, and it seemed that a car that was small, slow and lacked power wouldn’t be attractive to American consumers. The advanced technology was very attractive to the â€Å"early adopters† and the consumers were willing to pay over the asking price to get a Prius. When gas prices soared so did the demand for the Prius. Toyota has dealt with these factors well. Successfully introducing a small hybrid into a market dominated by SUV’s is no small feat. Toyota’s success with the Prius is mainly due to their targeting strategy. By targeting the perfect group of consumers, sales and demand grew exponentially, and pricing has and continues to be at a premium. 2.Outline the major macroenvironmental factors – demographic, economic, natural, technological, political, and cultural – that have affected Prius sales. How well has Toyota dealt with each of these factors? Prius sales benefited from a number of macroenvironmental factors. When the Prius was first introduced, Toyota targeted the â€Å"early adopters,† a group of consumers that were interested in the advanced technology of the vehicle. Many of these owners found creative ways to modify and hack the computer system and chatted about it online. Another group of consumers that Toyota targeted were the environmentally conscious and/or consumers that desired more fuel efficiency. Both groups showed high demand for the Prius and were willing to pay premium pricing for the vehicle. Prius sales also benefited from factors such as monetary incentives offered by the federal and/or state governments in the form of tax breaks. Some states started issuing permits to hybrid owners to drive in the High Occupancy Vehicle lanes (even if there was only one person in the car), or even free parking. Furthermore, some environmentally friendly companies offered employees money towards the purchase of hybrid vehicles. In 2007-2008 gas prices skyrocketed to 3 dollars per gallon and in some states above 4 dollars per gallon which only made the demand for the Prius greater. Studies about the various hybrid vehicles on the market were published and the Prius was at the top of the list for value. Studies indicated the Prius along with the Civic were the only hybrid vehicles that allowed consumers to recover the initial investment and actually save money after five years and 75,000 miles. Overall, Toyota has dealt with these macroenvironmetal factors very well. It is evident that targeting the right demographics has really paid off. All of these macroenvironmental factors were to Toyota’s benefit. All increased the sales and demand for the Prius. The only problem Toyota was facing was keeping up with the demand. 3.Evaluate Toyota’s marketing strategy so far. What has Toyota done well? How might it improve its strategy? Toyota’s marketing strategy has been focused on forward thinking and targeting the right consumer groups. The first consumer group targeted was â€Å"early adopters† or techies that found interest in the advanced technology of the car. This was a good strategy for the introduction of the vehicle. This group showed high demand for the Prius and spread the word through online sources. The second consumer group was the environmentally conscious, and those who wanted better fuel efficiency. Toyota predicted that gas prices would increase, and when they went through the roof, sales and demand increased. I believe that Toyota has done very well with this strategy. The truth is in their sales and demand for the Prius. An improvement that Toyota could make is better production planning. It seems that so far, this has been the biggest challenge. Though Prius sales are very strong, sales would only increase with more production as long as the demand stays consistently high. 4.GM’s marketing director for new ventures, Ken Stewart, says â€Å"If you want to get a lot of hybrids on the road, you put them in vehicles that people are buying now.† This seems to summarize the U.S. automaker’s approach to hybrids. Would you agree with Mr. Stewart? Why or why not? I agree somewhat with Mr. Stewart. I think that putting hybrids into popular cars and small SUV’s would work, but it would not work with sports cars and trucks. Sports cars and trucks are generally purchased for their power, speed, and towing ability, not their fuel efficiency. The current hybrid technology would diminish the performance of sports cars and trucks, and would eliminate most of the benefits of owning either type of vehicle. On the other hand, introducing the hybrid technology in popular cars and small SUV’s would work well if the option was available at an attractive price. Improved fuel efficiency is desirable when purchasing a car as the average price per gallon of gasoline is only rising. In my opinion, they hybrid technology would be an attractive offer. Not only would it be practical, but it would save the consumer a lot of money in the long run, assuming that they keep the car for five or more years

Sunni Islam

Sunnis Several years after Muhammad's death, the various factions of the Islamic faith were formed. Many of Muhammad's relatives and companions were involved in the power struggle, and the war finally stabilized when Mu'awiyya, the governor of  Syria, took control of the Caliphate. This marked the rise of the  Umayyad dynasty  which ruled Islam for quite some time. Although the Qur’an ordains that the division of Muslims into different sections is forbidden, three sects of Islam developed and emerged at the conclusion of the  Islamic Civil War.These include the Sunni, Shiite, Ahmadiyya and Karijite. Of these four, the Sunni denomination is by far the largest, comprising of 90% of the world Muslim population, with Shi’a comprising of the second largest percentage. The literal translation of the word Sunni is â€Å"habit† or usual practice. My assumption is that the habit or practice refers to the actions of Muhammad. So anyone claiming to follow the Sunnah , which are the actions of Muhammad and can show that they believe the Hadith, which are narrations of the actions of Muhammad, can consider him or herself to be a  Sunni  Muslim.People of Sunni orientation believe that Muhammad had never chosen a successor before his death and therefore nobody can really properly succeed him or become the succeeding leader of the Caliphate other than his closest companions, or Shahaba. Sunnis belive that only the the first four caliphs should be regarded as the properly led caliphs. They include Abu Bakr, Umar al-Khattab, Uthman Affan, and Ali Talib. Actually why there has not been one widely known caliph since 1923 for the entire Islamic religion is due to the fact that Islam is divided into these three sections metioned earlier.Although Sunnis accept hadith narrated by the first four caliphs, they regard one collection of hadith to be the most authentic. This is called the Sahih al Bukhari. The literal translation of sahih is â€Å"authentic †. The Sunni branch of Islam has four legal schools of thought or  madh'hab, through which Sunnis practice religious jurisprudence, or religious philosophy. There was only one madh-hab during the time of the â€Å"rightly-guided† Caliphs but after the beginning of the Umayyad dynasty, things changed. The Umayyad caliphs did not have the same religious authority as the previous ones.After the Umayyad Dynasty, there was the Abbasid Dynasty. In comparison to the Umayyads, they were more supportive of Islamic law. The crystallization of four major Sunni madh’hab of Islamic fiqh came about by the third century of Hijra. These four include the Hanafi, which was founded by Abu Hanifah and is the dominant school of Muslims in the United Kingdom and Germany, and also followed by Muslims in Bangladesh, Pakistan, India, and Afghanistan. The Maliki school, founded by a Hanifa’s eldest student named Malik ibn Anas and is the dominant school of Muslims in Morocco, Alg eria, Libiya, Nigeria, Sudan Bahrain, UAE and Kuwait.The Shafi’i school founded by a student of Malik named Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi’i and is the dominant school of Muslims in Indonesia, Egypt, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, Kenya, Somalia, Kenya Tanzania, Jordan, India, Syria and Lebanon. The Hanbali school founded by a student of al-Shafi’i named Ahmad bin Hanbal, and is the dominant school of Muslims in the Arabian Peninsula, to name the most predominant ones. The followers of these four schools follow the same basic beliefs but differ from one another in terms of practice and execution of rituals, and in interpretation of Shari’a.So rather than again dividing themselves up into different schools of law, Sunnis rather prefer to just combine and call themselves all Sunnis. The  religious text of Islam, the Qur'an  was compiled by Muhammad’s closest companions and regarded as authentic my all Muslims. There are many aspects of daily life, ho wever that are not mentioned in the Qur’an but they were observed and passed down through generations. These oral account are called hadith. Sunnis regard only certain collections of hadith to be authentic and those are compiled by six specific recorders named Bukhari, Muslim, Nasa’ii, Dawud, Tirmidhi, and Majah.The history of the Sunni–Shia conflict originates in the  split  that occurred when  Muhammad  died in the 632 which led to a dispute over  who should succeed him as  caliph  of the Islamic community. This led to the battle of Siffin. For a long time, Sunni Islam was differentiated from Shi'i Islam by its adherence to the  Caliph  as the leader of the Muslims. However, Sunni and Shi'i Islam are the same in that they share important taught principles: the wholeness of  God, the belief in the revelations of Muhammad, and the belief in resurrection on the Day of Judgment.Even though the main split in Islamic practice is between Sunni and Shi'a Muslims, there are several disagreements within the Sunni community. Almost like how Americans have different views, there are some liberal and more secular movements in Sunni Islam that say that Shari'a is interpreted on an individual basis, and that reject any  fatwa  or religious edict by religious Muslim authority figures. There are also several movements in Sunni Islam, which reject and sometimes persecute liberal Muslims for attempting to compromise certain Muslim traditions.